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Theory, Measurement and Interpretation of Well Logs Textbook

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 							Contents
  1. Electrical Resistivity of Rocks .... ....... ............ ....... .... .... ............ ..
1
  1.1 Introduction . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
  1.2 Definition of Electrical Resistivity ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
  1.3 Nature of Electrical Resistivity of Reservoir Rocks
.......... ........................ 2
  1.4 Formation Resistivity Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
  1.5 Effect of Formation-Water Salinity and
Temperature on Rock Resistivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
  1.6 Rock Resistivity/Porosity Relationship
....... ................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
  1.7 Relationship Between Formation
Resistivity Factor and Permeability ......... .......... 10
  1.8 Relationship Between Rock Resistivity and Fluid
Saturation .......................... 11
  1.9 Electrical Properties of Shaly Sands
............................................. 13
  2. Radioactive Properties of Rocks .... ..... ..... ......
.................... .......... 25
  2.1 Structure of the Atom ................
......................................... 25
  2.2 Energy States and Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
  2.3 Nature and Type of Natural Radiation
................................. . ..... ..... 26
  2.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
  2.5 Natural Gamma Ray and Gamma Ray
Logging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
  2.6 Gamma Ray Interactions
........................................ .............. 32
  2.7 Absorption of Gamma Rays ..................
..................... ........ ..... 33
  2.8 Gamma Ray Absorption Logging ................................
................ 36
  2.9 The Neutron ...... .......................................................... 37
 
2.10 Neutron Interactions .... ......... ........... .................................. 38
  2.11 Neutron Diffusion
........................................................ .... 39
  2.12 Neutron Logging Methods ..............
....................................... 41
  3. Acoustic Properties of Rocks .... ......... .......... . ....
.......... ... .......... . 45
  3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
  3.2 Basic Concepts of Elasticity
............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
  3.3 Acoustic-Wave
Propagation in Fluid-Filled Borehole . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
  3.4
Acoustic-Wave Propagation in Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 53
  3.5 Porosity/Transit-Time Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
  4. Measurement Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
  4.1 Measurement Environment Effects . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
  4.2 Borehole Diameter and Shape
................ ......... ......................... 60
  4.3 Mud, Mud-Filtrate, and Mudcake Properties ....
............................... .... 64
  4.4 Invasion Profile
........................................................... ... 7 1
  4.5 Formation Temperature . ... . . . ...
..... . . . . .. .... .. . . .... ... . ... .. ..... ... . . .. . 7 3
  4.6 Record of Measurement Environment .. .
... . ................ . .............. .... .. 7 9
  5. Resistivity Logs .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
  5.1 Introduction . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 92
  5.2 Apparent Resistivity .................................................... ...... 92
  5.3
Conventional Electrode Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 95
  5.4 Focused Current Devices ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101
  5.5 Induction Devices ....................... .. ..........................
......... 103
  5.6 True Resistivity Determination ..... ............ ................................. 106
 
5.7 Determination of Rxo From Microresistivity Tool Readings .... ..................... ... 123
  5.8
Summary................................................................... 125
  6. The Spontaneous Potential Log
.. . .. ... ............. .... ........ ............ . . ... 129
  6.1 Naturally Occurring Electrical Potentials
.......................................... 129
  6.2 The SP Log .............
.................................................... 129
  6.3 Origin of the SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130
  6.4 Theoretical Essp
vs. Measured SP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 132
 
6.5 Determination of Formation Water Resistivity .............. ...... .................. 133
  6.6 Character and
Shape of the SP Deflection ..... ................................... 141
  7. Gamma Ray Log . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • • . . . . . . . .
• . . . 146
  7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146
  7.2 Detection and Measurement of Nuclear Radiation .......
................. .. ....... . 146
  7.3 Unit of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147
  7.4 Statistical Variations .. .. ...... ..... ..
.... .. ... ...... .. ... ... . .. ........ . . ... .. 147
  7.5 Logging Speed . .. ....... .... .... .. .. . ..
....... .... .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . ..... . . . .. . 149
  7.6 Tool Response .. . . ... ........... .. .. ... ...
... ......... .. .... .. ... . .. . .. . . . .. 151
  7 .7 Applications of the Gamma Ray Log . .. .... .. ....... .
........ ... ...... ... ... .. . . . 153
  7.8 Gamma Ray Spectrometry Log .. ...... ..... ..... ... . . .. .. . ..
... ... ... ..... .... . 153
  8. Gamma Ray Absorption Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . . 159
  8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
.. .. . . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. .. 159
  8.2 Single-Detector
Formation Density Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
 
8.3 Dual-Detector Density Tool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .. 159
  8.4 Tool Calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 164
  8.5 Porosity From Density Log Response .... ... .. ..
....... . .. . .... . . .... .. . . ...... . . 165
  8.6 Litho-Density Tool ....... .... .......... ............
... . ... .. ... . . . ......... . .. 167
  9. Neutron Logs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 172
  9.1
Introduction. . .. . . .. . . .. ... .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .... . .. ... .. .. ..
172
  9.2 Types of Detectors .. . .. . ....... . .......... . .. . .. .. . ...... .. .... .. . .. .... . . ... 17
2
  9.3 N-G Tool ... .. .......... . . ... .. ... .... .... .. .. .......... . . .. .. .. .. .. . . ..... . 173
  9.4 Sidewall Neutron Log ..... ... ..... ..... ........ ....... . .. .... ... . . .... ..... .. . 17 4
  9.5
Dual-Detector Neutron Tool ..... .. .. ...... .. ... ................ .... ... ..... ... . 17 6
  9.6 Pulsed
Neutron Tools . . .... . . . . .. .. .. . .. .. . . . . . .. .. ... . . .... .. .. ... .. ..... ... . 180
  10.
Sonic Porosity Log . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . • . .. 189
  10. 1 Introduction .
........ . ... . . .... .. .. . . .. . ..... ................ . . .. . . . . . . . . ... . . . ...... 189
  10.2
Single-Receiver System .. . .... . . . . ... .. .. .. . . . . . . . .. ............... . . . . . . ... ......... 189
  10.3 Dual-Receiver System . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . .. ..
. . . .. .. .. . .... 190
  10.4 Borehole-Compensated Dual-Transmitter System ....... ..... .. . . . . . .. . .. ..
... ...... . . . .. 195
  10.5 Long-Spacing System .. . .. ...... .. .. .. ... . ... .. . . . ... . ......... ...
.... . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . 199
  10.6 Amplitude and Waveform Sonic Systems. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. .. . ..
.. .. . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . . . .. 20 2
  11. Conventional Interpretation Techniques . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
  11. 1
Introduction................................................................. 206
  11.2 Acquiring Raw Data From
Logs ... . .. .. .. ... ..... . .. . . ... ... ......... . .. ... . .. . . 206
  11.3 Basic Concepts of
Conventional Interpretation Technique . .. .. .. . . ..... .. . ... ... ..... 20 9
  11.4 Calculation of
Recoverable Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 18
  1
1.5 Concept of Critical or Cutoff Saturation ... . .. ... . .. . .. . ....... . ..... ... ..... . . .... 2 18
 
11.6 Concept of Critical or Cutoff Porosity. . .. . . .. .. . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ..
.. . 221
  1 1.7 Concept of Movable Oil Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 222
  11.8 Advantages and Limitations of Conventional Interpretation Techniques .. . .
. . .... ....... 224
  12. Reconnaissance Interpretation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • .
. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241
  12.1
Introduction................................................................. 24 1
  12.2 Rwa Technique. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241
  12.3 The Ro Log . . .. ... . ..... .. .... . .. ....... . ... . .. ... .. .. ... ... . .. .... .. ...... . 249

 12.4 The FxolFs Approach .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. 250
  12.5 The RxolRt Method . .... ... .... . .... .. ..... . . .. . ...... .. . . . ... . . ..
. . . . .. .. .. . . 252
  12.6 MOP's..................................................................... 254
  13. Pattern-Recognition Interpretation Techniques (Crossplotting) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • . 268
  13.1 Introduction................................................................. 268
  13.2 Nonlinear-Resistivity/ Linear-Porosity (Hingle) Cross'plot .. .... ..... .. . . .. . .. .. .. ... . . . 268
  13.3 Log Rt vs. Log cf> Pickett Crossplot .. . . . . . . . . . . .... . ..... . . .. . . .. . ... . . .. ... . ..
.. . 27 6
  13.4 Flushed-Zone Resistivity/Porosity Crossplots ... .... .. . .. ... ... . ... ... . . .... .. ... .
. 283
  13.5 Interplay of Hingle and Pickett Crossplots . ..... .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .
.. . . . . 284
  13.6 Summary . . .. . . . . ... ..... ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 284
  14. Interpretation in Complex Lithologies . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
  14.1 Introduction
................................................................. 292
  14.2 Lithology/Porosity Interpretation With
Two Porosity Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 292
  14.3 Lithology/Porosity
Interpretation With Three Porosity Tools ........................... 296
  14.4 Lithology/Porosity Interpretation
With the Litho-Density Tool .......................... 304
  15. Log Interpretation of Shaly Formations . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
  15.1 Introduction
................................................................. 312
  15.2 Shale Content From the SP Log . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 312
  15.3 Shale Content
From the Gamma Ray Log ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 312
  15.4
Porosity Logs in Shaly Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .. 314
  15.5 Effective Porosity and Shale Content From Porosity Logs ............................ 317
 
15.6 Density/Neutron Crossplot for Shaly Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. 319
  15.7 Water Saturation Determination in Shaly Formations ................................ 322
  16.
Evaluation of Gas-Bearing Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 329
  16.1 Introduction ................................................................. 329
  16.2
Effect of Gas on the Neutron Log Response ....................................... 329
  16.3 Effect of Gas on the
Density Log Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329
  16.4
Effect of Gas on Sonic Log Response ............................................ 330
  16.5 Visual Gas Detection
With Porosity Overlays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 330
  16.6
Porosity Determination in Gas-Bearing Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
330
  16.7 Saturation Determination in Gas-Bearing Formations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .. 338
  16.8 Gas Effect on Lithology/Porosity Crossplots ..................... . ....... . ......... 338
  16.9 Shaly Gas-Bearing Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .. 339
  Appendix A SI Metric Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
  Appendix B Answers to Selected Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
  Appendix C Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
  Author Index . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 361
  Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 363 						

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